<text>Aperture - Opening.Atmosphere - The fluid substance surrounding any celestial object that has a gravitational field strong enough to prevent the gases from escaping.Atmospheric Gases - A collection of gases held by gravitational forces. These are different for different planets. Surrounding Earth the main constituents are nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%).Aurora Borealis - The northern lights - faint radiations seen at high altitudes illuminating the night sky. Solar activity is related to the appearance of this phenomenon.Black Hole - An astronomical phenomenon theorized as a means of describing certain gravitational anomalies in our universe. The gravitational forces in these are considered to be so extreme that no radiation, not even visible light, can escape.Centimeter - A metric measure, 0.01 of a meter. 2.54 centimeters = 1 inch.Electromagnetic radiation - The broad spectrum of radiation including radio waves, x-rays, ultraviolet, infrared, and visible light and microwaves all of which travel at the same speed in a vacuum.Globular galaxies - Immense spherical groups of stars. These are among the oldest in our Milky Way.Gravity - An attractive force which is found to exists between any two objects of any mass.Image - The figure or appearance of an object made by reflection or refraction.Ionosphere - Upper levels of the Earth's atmosphere, extending outward from about 70 kilometers and containing free electronically charged particles that reflect radio waves.Irregular galaxies - These are usually smaller than spiral galaxies and present no regular structure.Meteor - A fast moving mass from space traversing the atmosphere.Nebulae - Huge clouds of gas and dust in space.Novae - Stars which suddenly brighten and become visible in an area where none were seen before. Ozone - The gas whose molecules consists of three oxygen atoms combined, 0 sub 3.Planet - A heavenly body revolving around a sun and shining with reflecting light.Pollution - Generally referring to obnoxious materials in the atmosphere or on the surface of the earth. A pollutant can be any substance that is not wanted in a system.Pulsar - A star that emits radiation in equally spaced pulses. Quasar - Exceedingly remote astronomical object which appears like a blue star but which emits prodigious quantities of energy. The region that emits light is about one light-year in diameter and 100 times more luminous than the brighest galaxy. Radio galaxies - These are enormous and emit extremely powerful radio waves. Solar Rays - generally refers to light rays from the sun. Solar wind - A continuous wind of charged particles from the sun, blowing through interplanetary space. Spiral galaxies - A self-contained aggregate of stars, nebulae, gases and dust formed from rapidly rotating gas. These have a bright center with the spiral arms extending outward. Star - A celestial body that shines by its own light. Stratosphere - The layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere extending from approximately 16 to 50-55 kilometers above the surface of the earth. Supernovae - Massive stars at least five times the mass of the Sun. These have been known to explode resulting in a gigantic dust cloud or leaving the star's core. Troposphere - The lowest portion of the earth's atmosphere, extending 16 kilometers, sometimes called the weathersphere.</text>
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<text> HST - AN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATIVE EFFORT</text>
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<text>Hubble's LawThe NASA-Hubble Space Telescope is named after Dr. Edwin P. Hubble, whose work provided proof of a much larger universe than just our galaxy. Dr. Hubble described the expanding universe, explaining that the more distant a galaxy, the more rapidly it is moving away from our galaxy (Hubble's Law). Project DirectionNASA's Office of Space Science and Applications in Washington, D.C., is responsible for overall direction of the HST program.Project ManagementThe Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Ala., is NASA's lead center, responsible for overall project management.Shuttle OperationsThe Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, is responsbile for the Space Shuttle and flight crew operations.Launch OperationsThe Kennedy Space Center in Florida is responsible for the Space Shuttle launch operations.Instrumentation, Data, Mission OperationsThe Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, is responsible for Scientific Instrumentation, mission operations, and data reduction. This center also monitors activities of the Telescope Science Institute.International CooperationThe European Space Agency has provided one of the scientific iunstruments, the Faint Object Camera, as well as the solar arrays. This Agency will also participate in science operations.Space Telescope Science InstituteThe Space Telescope Science Institute is responsible for conducting an overall Space Telescope program. NASA has contracted with the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) of Tucson, Arizona, a consortium of 14 universities, to operate and maintian the Institute. The Institute is located on the Homewood Campus of John Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland.Major ContractorsThe space telescope's major contractors are:Support Systems Module and Systems Engineering - Lockheed Missiles and Space Company Sunnyvale, California 94086Optical Telescope Assembly - Perkin-Elmer Danbury, Connecticut 06810</text>
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<text>The observatory temperatures are controlled by both active and passive means. Insulation, thermal coatings and electric heaters maintain and control temperatures. Equipment which requires cooler temperatures is located on the dark side of the telescope.</text>
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<text>The Data Management System and its central computer, controls and processes information used for the operation of the spacecraft.</text>
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<text>All of this equipment can be serviced regularly by astronauts who can attach themselves to the telescope by a grappling fixture, and use handrails and foot restraints provided on this section.Even at an altitude of 368 statute miles the atmosphere will cause drag on the HST. As the HST loses altitude, it's speed increases. These changes must be predicted in order to schedule observation times. Every two or three years (after the HST has fallen to about 300 miles) astronauts will service the vehicle, remove the solar panels, and carry it back to the original orbit. The HST will operate in this way for at least 15 years, completing an orbit approximately every 95 minutes.</text>
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<text>Located in the SSM aft shroud are the Fine Guidance Sensors which allow the Space Telescope to remain precisely aimed for many hours. Fixed head star trackers located in the aft section are used for finding rough target areas. Five scientific instruments are located behind the focal plane in this section.</text>
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<text>Located on the SSM forward shell are four magnetized metal rods. These work with four reaction wheels within the SSM to control the spacecraft's position in space. The computer gives commands to the reaction wheel to point the telescope within an accuracy of 0.01 arc seconds. By electronically spinning one of the wheels forward, the spacecraft begins to turn in the opposite direction. The turning speed will be about that of a minute hand on a clock. Also located on the forward shell are two high gain antennas.</text>
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<text>The equipment section of the spacecraft is located behind the light shield. This houses the electronic and control modules, including gyros and batteries. Attached to this section are two solar arrays. Electrical power is provided by these and stored in the batteries for use when the sun is not available. An average of 2.4 kw is used for operation of all subsystems and instruments.</text>
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<text>The Optical Assembly and Scientific Instruments are enclosed by the Support Systems Module (SSM) shroud. The four main sections of the SSM are: the light shield, the forward shell, the equipment section, and the aft shroud.</text>
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<text>The light shield and the aperture door protect the telescope from high intensity light. The HST cannot view either the sun or the lighted side of the moon because they are too bright. The telescope will not be turned to within 50 degrees of the Sun when in operation. Venus or Mercury can be studied only a few minutes during each Earth orbit when the light from the sun is blocked. Baffles located within the telescope prevent scattered light from degrading the image.</text>
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<text>The High Speed Photometer will measure the fluctuations in brightness from objects in space on a time scale. Among the observations to be made will be exploding stars, quasars, binary stars, and possible planets.</text>
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<text>The Scientific Instument Control and Data Handling Subsystem has its own computer which controls commands for the Scientific Instruments. As the HST acquires data it will be sent to NASA's Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network. This system includes the Tracking and Data Relay Satellites, the ground receiving system, and the NASA Communication Network.</text>
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<text>The High Resolution Spectrograph works much the same as the Faint Object Spectrograph except it uses more light and resolves it into much finer increments. It will be looking at the ultraviolet region which cannot penetrate Earth's atmosphere. This should provide a detailed chemical composition of objects in space.</text>
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<text>The Faint Object Camera will gather weak incoming starlight and focus it on an electronic image intensifier to produce an image on a phosphor screen 100,000 times brighter than the light received. This will be used to search for planets, quasars, gather data on globular clusters and other objects.</text>
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<text>The Wide Field/Planetary Camera will permit examination of the largest area of space of any instrument in the HST. The field is not as large as some ground telescopes and is not intended for full-sky surveys. The different intensities of light picked up by the camera can be differentiated and sent back as small squares, each of a different intensity. These picture elements, called pixels, are transmitted electronically by telemetry back to Earth. The full picture is assembled on Earth and is made up of 1600 by 1600 pixels or 2,560,000 small picture elements. Color can be assigned by computer, depending on the intensity of gray in the original, to create a color enhanced picture. The data from these instruments will be used to search for planets around stars, observe comets, study atmosphere around planets, observe star formation, compare galaxies as well as other projects.</text>
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<text>The Faint Object Spectrograph can obtain spectra of extremely faint objects. Study of the spectrum will tell us many things about the objects we are viewing. Each spectrogram will be used to define amounts and kinds of chemicals in different celestial objects.Of particular interest are quasars and their nuclei. Quasars appear to be much smaller than galaxies measuring about one light year in diameter. A galaxy may be one hundred thousand light years in diameter. The amount of energy being released by a typical quasar is 100 times more than a typical galaxy.</text>
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<text>The Hubble Telescope is a Cassegrain reflector. The light from a star will go through the aperture, down the asembly, past the smaller secondary mirror, and strike the 2.4 meter (94.5 in.) primary mirror. The light is then reflected 4.6 meters (16 ft.) back to the 0.3 meter (12.2 in.) secondary mirror where it is narrowed and intensified into a small diameter beam. The beam travels through the 60 centimeter (24 in.) hole in the primary mirror to the focal plane behind it.The focal plane is 1.5 m (4.9 ft.) behind the front surface of the primary mirror. At the focal plane the light originally captured by the big mirror is converted into a focused image.Pictures and other data are converted to electronic signals and transmitted to Earth. This data is then reconstructed into images, spectrograms, and other readable data. The HST optical system is a light gathering instrument. (See next card for sketch of this sytem.)</text>
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<text>The arrangement of the secondary mirrors in the Newtonian, Cassegrain and Coude' reflectors is different.</text>
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<text>Light from the stars enters through the opening opposite the main mirror. The main mirror surface facing the stars, collects more light than would be possible by the human eye. Since this mirror has a dish shaped curved surface, the reflected light is focused to form an image back up in the tube of the telescope in the direction from which the starlight entered. The point of focus and the length of the tube depends on the size and shape of the mirror. A secondary mirror, facing the primary mirror, is placed in the tube at the proper position to reflect the formed image to an eyepiece or instrumentation.</text>
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<text>Three basic types of reflector telescopes are the Newtonian, the Cassegrain, and Coude'. Some astronomical telescopes such as the 200-inch (500 cm) Hale reflector housed on Mount Palomar, California, can use all three for different types of work.The reflector telescope consists of a large primary concave (dish shaped) mirror which collects the light from the stars and reflects and focuses it on a smaller secondary mirror. The light is then sent to an eyepiece, instrumentation camera or, in the case of a Coude' reflector, to a third mirror.</text>
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<text> Mirrors Have Advantages</text>
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<text>The reflecting telescope, which uses a mirror to collect and focus the light, has several advantages. Only one side of the mirror needs to be ground and polished. A thin coating of aluminum on a glass dish makes an excellent image maker. When white light is reflected from a mirror all colors are reflected in the same way. No chromatic aberration occurs, thus eliminating this problem. A mirror can be mounted and supported from beneath while a lens must be supported on the sides only. The shape and curvature is much more stable for a back mounted mirror than for a lens. Because of these advantages all large astronomical telescopes are reflectors.</text>
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<text> Focus With a Lens - Refractor Telescopes </text>
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<text>The human eye acts in much the same way to focus images. The inverted image is formed on the back of the eye. The brain takes this visual data and automatically processes the upright image. Although the upright image is not necessary to study the stars, most refractor telescopes have an eyepiece composed of several additional lenses to turn the image upright and also magnify it.</text>
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<text> Lenses Present Problems</text>
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<text>The use of large lenses in telescopes has presented problems. White light is composed of a spectrum of colors. As the light passes through a lens each color is bent differently. As white light passes through a lens the red light forms an image slightly farther from the lens than that of other colors. The violet image is the closest to the lens. This causes colored fringes (chromatic aberration) on the image formed by large lenses. A series of lenses used together have helped solve this problem. Very large lenses are still very difficult and expensive to produce and mount in the telescope.</text>
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<text> Focus With a Lens - Refractor Telescopes</text>
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<text> Observe at a Distance</text>
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<text>Telescopes are instruments that make objects appear nearer. Binoculars, telephoto lenses, theodolites (surveyors' instruments) are specialty telescopes. The word telescope was derived from two Greek words -tele, meaning 'at a distance', and scopein, meaning 'to observe'.The largest telscopes are used by astronomers. The two basic types of telescopes are refractors - using lenses, and reflectors - using mirrors. A combination of both mirrors and lenses is also used.</text>
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<text>The simplest refractor telescope is one with a convex lens. A convex lens is a circular piece of glass which is curved on both sides so that the center is thicker than the outside. When light enters the convex lens it is bent toward the center due to the curved surface. The diagram illustrates the light traveling from the object (represented by an arrow) through the lens. As the light leaves the other side of the curved surface it is bent again in the same direction. The image is focused on the opposite side of the lens and is now upside down. </text>
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<text> AN OPEN WINDOW HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE</text>
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<text> The Past Revealed </text>
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<text>The HST is an open window to the Universe and mysteries, old and new, will be solved. As we observe light from billions of light years away, we are looking far back into time. This light could very well reveal to us the beginnings of stars, quasars, galaxies, and gaseous nebulae, if not the origin of the universe. The most revolutionary discoveries may be those we have not yet even imagined.</text>
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<text> AN OPEN WINDOW HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE</text>
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<text> More Viewing Time-More Viewing Distance</text>
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<text> Chemical Composition from Spectra</text>
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<text>The HST is designed to be above the atmospheric components which make our observations from earth so limited. The viewing time is considerably lengthened. The instrument is able to observe for 40% of a 24-hour day on the average. The volume of space visible by HST is hundreds of times larger and objects are visible that are 50 times fainter than those visible with ground based telescopes. Resolution is 10 times sharper than before and the observable universe is expanded by 350 times.</text>
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<text>Observations from Space Telescope are accomplished over a wide spectral range. Spectrographs in the observatory split ultraviolet radiation and visible light into their components and measure the intensity of incoming radiation. Resulting data helps us study the physical composition and chemical structure of objects in our universe.</text>
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<text> AN OPEN WINDOW HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE</text>
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<text>The launch capability of the space shuttle has made our dream of a space telescope a reality. The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is a NASA project. It is called a space telescope because its orbit will be 320 nautical miles(593 km) above the Earth's surface.The space shuttle will be used to launch the telescope and deploy it into orbit with the Remote Manipulator System.The Space Telescope is a self-contained, remote controlled space observatory. A solar array is made up of many solar cells which use the energy of the sun and convert it to electrical energy. This energy will be used to operate instrumentation and send images back to earth by electronic means. These images will be then converted on Earth into clear pictures for us to study.</text>
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<text>The primary mirror of this reflecting telescope is only 96 inches (2.4 meters) in diameter. The largest earth based optical telescope in operation is 236 inches (6 meters) and is operated in the Soviet Union in the Caucasus Mountains. The HST will receive images from an estimated 14 billion light years, compared to the two billion light year vision of the largest earth based telescope. This is seven times as far into space and back in time. The light received by the HST will havebeen traveling through space for up to 14 billion years.In observing this light we will be seeing light which left its source up to 14 billion years ago. An explosion of a star which we see today actually happened years ago.</text>
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<text> A Dream Come True</text>
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<text> Telescope Mirror Reflects the Past</text>
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<text> AN OPEN WINDOW HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE</text>
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<text> Obscured Vision </text>
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<text>Until recently we have been limited by observations of the radiations that reach the surface of the earth. As you look at the sky during the day, most of the distant radiation is obscured by our own star which is a mere 93 million miles (150 km) from Earth. The night sky opens up a whole new panorama of celestial objects. We are receiving light from millions of distant stars when our star is not visible.Even with the best ground-based telescopes and no clouds, we are still trying to observe the heavens through an atmosphere which is 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% argon, neon and other gases. Water vapor and many kinds of dust particles make it difficult to see.</text>
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<text>With the capability of space probes such as Pioneer, Mariner, Viking, Voyager I and Voyager II, we have been able to take pictures and send them back to earth from space. The clarity of these pictures has excited us about the possibilities of an observatory in space. The possibilities of discovery with a space telescope are comparable to the universe opened to us by the telescope used first by Galileo Galilei to study the heavens in the early sixteen hundreds.</text>
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<text> Clear Vision</text>
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<text> AN OPEN WINDOW HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE</text>
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<text> Tell Me Why</text>
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<text>Interest in the phenomena of space is not new. Curiosity and the desire to understand the light images from space have been with us as long as vision and intelligence have existed. Early scientists such as Copernicus, Brahe, Galileo, Kepler and Newton illuminated our thoughts and studies of light energy from space.</text>
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<text>The development of mathematics as well as other sciences has been influenced by our observations of space and our desire to describe motion of celestial bodies.</text>
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<text> Tools of Curiosity</text>
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<textSize>12</textSize>
<textStyle>plain</textStyle>
<name>globalfind</name>
<script>on mouseuprepeat with y = 1 to 100set cursor to busyglobal t1,t2,t3,t4,t5,t6,t7,t8,t9,t10,t11,t12,t13,t14,t15,¬t16,t17,t18,t19,t20,t21,t22,t23,t24,t25,t26,t27,t28,t29,t30,¬t31,t32,t33,t34,t35,t36,t37,t38,t39,t40,t41,t42,t43,t44global t0, x, r,hat,straw,buff1,buff2,count1,count2,¬t45,t46,t47,t48,t49,t50,t51,t52,t53,t54,t55,t56,t57,t58,t59,t60find whole t0get the resultif count1>=3 and it is not empty thenput the number of this card into hatput the foundchunk into buff1show message boxflash 2exit mouseupelseif it is not empty thenadd 1 to count1add 1 to xput "t"&x into rset lockscreen to truego to "Hyper-space Mathematics"send "mouseup" to button "GlobalFind"elseput the number of this card into hatput the foundchunk into buff1exit mouseupend ifend ifend repeatend mouseupon enterkeyglobal t1,t2,t3,t4,t5,t6,t7,t8,t9,t10,t11,t12,t13,t14,t15,¬t16,t17,t18,t19,t20,t21,t22,t23,t24,t25,t26,t27,t28,t29,t30,¬t31,t32,t33,t34,t35,t36,t37,t38,t39,t40,t41,t42,t43,t44global t0,x,r,hat,straw,buff1,buff2,count1,count2,t45,t46,t47,¬t48,t49,t50,t51,t52,t53,t54,t55,t56,t57,t58,t59,t60hide message boxfind whole t0put 0 into count1put the number of this card into strawput the foundchunk into buff2if straw = hat and buff1 = buff2 thenadd 1 to xput "t"&x into rset lockscreen to truego to "Hyper-space Mathematics"send "mouseup" to button "GlobalFind"end ifend enterkey</script>
